ICAO personnel licensing Essay Example for Free

ICAO personnel licensing Essay APPLICATION OF ARTICLE 39 (b) [Q- b) If Article 38 has to be complied with regardless of the nature of the difference, and the State legislation is more demanding than the equivalent SARP, should this difference be endorsed on a flight crew license in accordance with Article 39 (b)? ] Article –39(b) provides us that a person holding a license but does not satisfy in full the criteria or conditions laid down in the international standard relating to the class of license or certificate that he holds shall have endorsed on or attached to his license mentioning the complete enumeration of the particulars in which he does not satisfy such conditions. But, there are not provision under Article –39(b) to endorsing the over criteria or extra quality in his license. As a result if Article 38 has to be complied with regardless of the nature of the difference, and the State legislation is more demanding than the equivalent SARP, this difference does not endorsed on a flight crew license in accordance with Article 39 (b). Q- C) Does Article 40 have to apply at all times? Article-40 tells us that about the Validity of endorsed certificates and licenses. It is clearly written that, on aircraft or personnel having certificates or licenses so endorsed shall participate in international navigation. Exception allowed with the permission of the State or States whose territory is entered. Use of any such aircraft, or of any certificated aircraft part, in any State other than that in which it was originally certificated shall be at the discretion of that State into which the aircraft or part is imported. In Abdul-Hussain and Others (1999), the appellants had sought to rely on the defense of duress of circumstance in answer to a charge of hijacking contrary to section 1(1) of the Aviation Security Act-1982. The Applets were Shiite Muslim from southern Iraq, who had fled to Sudan. They were over stayers in Sudan and feared being arrested and return to Iraq where they expected to be tortured and executed. To avoid this eventuality they hijacked a Plane at Khartoum Airport and forced a Pilot to fly to London where they sought Political Asylum. Court of Apple quashed their Conviction. In this case there were enough scope to apply Article-40 of Chicago Convention, but not at all applied. But all time the Article-40 is not applicable. I think it may be applicable in accordance with the situation that demands. Such a situation of 11th September, it demands to apply Article-40. At the same hijacking of Iraqi Aircraft and landing in US may not apply Article-40. It also ought not to apply Article-40 in natural calamities such as bad weather or Tsunami rescue initiative. The context of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) universal safety audit programme, that audit of civil aviation regulation in the United Kingdom took place in July 2000. The findings were generally positive. In the area of general aviation (i. e. non-public transport flying) many Standards and Recommended Practices (SARPs) contained in the relevant annexes to the Chicago Convention may not been implemented. In this Context, ICAO recommended that the UK should take steps to amend the legislation instead of notifying differences. UK policy with regard to the contents of ICAO annexes is that all Standards where appropriate; Recommended Practices will be reflected in national legislation and requirements. The non-compliances with the SARPs concern operational and equipment requirements not currently prescribed in the Air Navigation. The civil aviation legislation should be amended to remove areas of non-compliance with internationally accepted standards contained in the ICAO annexes applicable for the General Aviation operations. This Most important proposal involves amendment to Article 40, 41, 43, 45, 62, 129 and Schedule 4 and 5 of the Air Navigation Order d) If you argue for changes, prepare draft amendments to the relevant Articles of the Convention. Yes, I argue for Changes in Articles of Chicago Convention of ICAO. The Chicago Convention was under reality of the year 1944. A long time, more then a half-century has changed the national international politics, technological development and changes in life style. So I must think Articles of Chicago Convention required change as time demand. Modification must be in accordance with European Union European Convention of Human Rights. Articles 39 and 40 of the Convention are also relevant to the age limit of pilots-in-command engaged in commercial air transport operations. As they authorize international flights by flight crew those who do not meet all international licensing Standards or provided that an authorization is given by each State into which the aircraft is operated. In practice, it means that if a pilot in command is under the age specified in paragraph 2. 1. 10. 1 (60 years at present and 65 from November 2006) he/ or she cannot be prevented by reason of age from operating into any ICAO Contracting State. For further instance, once he has reached the specified age, that one may still operate as PIC, subject to certain conditions: 1. His/her national Licensing Authority permits it 2. Operations are undertaken only in national airspace untill and unless, 3. Another State has given specific authorization that such flights are permitted in its airspace. A State may wish to impose a lower maximum age limit than that specified by ICAO in 2. 1. 10. 1. It may do this for the licenses it issues, but, as stated above, it cannot prevent an aircraft operated by a PIC holding a licence from another State, who is below the ICAO upper limit, from operating in its airspace. For co-pilots, since paragraph 2. 1. 10. 2 is a Recommendation, not at all a Standard, the upper age limit is set by the national Licensing Authority which can choose to impose any national age limit on the licenses it issues, as there are no international restrictions based on age for co-pilots. Here I shall argue to amend Article-39 (b) and the Draft Amendment is as follows- Draft Amendment on Article-39 (b) of Chicago Convention of ICAO Existing Article –39(b) : ‘Any person holding a license who does not satisfy in full the conditions laid down in the international standard relating to the class of license or certificate which he holds shall have endorsed on or attached to his license a complete enumeration of the particulars in which he does not satisfy such conditions’ Limitations: The article addresed to endorse the disqualifications in the licence, but no option for endorsing over qualification then the standard. There is also no provition for penilizing for disqualificatio. Suggested Amendment: a) Any person holding license, there should be provision of endorsed or attached the complete enumeration of every particulars in which he satisfy or does not satisfy. b) For particular number of unsuccesfull attemps( 3 to 5 attemps), license should be withheld and sent Apprentice. c) For succesful attemps, license category should be upgreaded d) Nationality, race or color may not influence the whole process. e) Providing training for the recommended under Article 39 Conclution The objectivesICAO states that the aims and objectives of ICAO are to develop the principles and techniques of international air navigation and to foster the planning and development of international air transport. ICAO is composed of an Assembly, composed of representatives from all contracting States. The Assembly normally meets every 3 years, votes a triennial budget, and sets the work program for the next triennium. The governing body composed of 33 States, elected by the Assembly for three-year terms. (The U. S. has always been elected to the Council. ) The Council establishes Standards and Recommended ICAO, the International Civil Aviation Organization and is one of the specialized agencies of the United Nations has plaiyed its vital global role for safety of and development of standards for international civil aviation. In the todays global aviation environment, its important to keep in mind that the rights and obligations all countries throughout the world have agreed to observe in matters of civil aviation and ICAO defines rights. I have designed this document to present general overview information on ICAO Atricles as 38, 39 40 and its relevance to our Tropics. There are differnce on how the United States meets ICAOs standards related to aircraft airworthiness is also provided. The purpose of this document is to assist the personnel to understand ICAO act extraterritorially in a manner that might infringe on the rights of another ICAO contracting state. Referance : 1) Crimila Law , Michel J Alen , 7th Edition 2003. 2) Web: http://www. caa. co. uk/ 3. Web : http://www. icao. int.

Participants in Construction Projects

Participants in Construction Projects A construction project is a task undertaken in the production of construction products. The term project in this context is being used for the total activity from inception to commissioning and occupation, involving an agreed and planned objective and total input of specialist participants and their interrelationships. It is a temporary non-recurrent activity that is started, implemented, evaluated and terminated. This activity is undertaken in response to demand (direct, derived, individual or collective) for construction activity. Moreover, the activity is complex and, hence, necessitates the input of large numbers of participants with different disciplines to carry out the separate but interrelated functions of design, engineering, costing, pricing, and production. The participants who are engaged to work on the project are mainly unaccustomed to working with each other and, hence, projects activity imposes a special demand on team building and motivation. In addition, every parti cipant should be made aware of all the governing conditions, objectives, responsibilities, relationship and basic parameters of the construction project. Construction projects vary considerably in size and complexity. Moreover, generally complex projects tend to be large amount of service element. This complexity poses major problems of bounded rationality, risks and uncertainty. Project Participants The participants to construction project procurement are the client (who is the initiator), the multi-disciplinary construction consultants (who act as the clients professional advisers) and the building contractor (who constructs the building). Together, this group of participants takes on and manages sequence of distinct but unrelated activities of the construction process from beginning to the end. A construction project, to all intents and purposes, is the production of capital goods and, like any other capital investment, involves careful planning and decision making. Construction projects generally are complex and composed of many activities. It is this complexity that calls for the input proposals of designers, contractors, suppliers and statutory authorities for their production. Although thee procurement method adopted may vary the relationship of the participants, there will always be a proposer (client), designer (architect/engineer), construction team (builder), statutory authorities (gas, electricity, fire and water) and area local authority. A. The Client The client is the key to the whole construction production process from inception to completion and at times to post-occupancy maintenance. Without the client there would be no construction project. Construction industry clients either identify user potential or create the need for the facilities and raise the necessary financial resources for their creation. They initiate the construction process by commissioning various construction professional to build to specific requirement. During the design and construction phases, the client directly or indirectly monitors progress, time, cost, and quality objectives and sanctions any necessary major variations to the design. Finally, on completion, it is the client who either disposes of the product at the marketplace or takes occupation and bears the repairs and maintenance cost of his/her investment. Therefore, the construction industry looks to many clients for work and, generally, these may be classified as public sector clients or clients from the private sector. A1. Public sector client These are public authorities whose operations are governed generally by Acts of Parliament. They act as agents for the central government who exercise control over their capital building programmes and expenditure. The key public sector clients for the UK construction industry are: Central government department, who are responsible for their own programme of construction on projects. Local authorities, who are responsible for the provision of housing, school, libraries, swimming pool, halls, sports centers and the like. Some health authorities, which are responsible for hospital buildings. Public corporations (e.g. British Rail and Air Transport boards), who are responsible for the provision of buildings and other construction products for their own use. A2. Private sector client These are private companies that build for leasing, renting, sale or own occupation. The central government only exercises a limited amount of control over their operations (e.g. planning controls for proposed development). The private sector clients for the construction industry are many and may be classified as follows: Multi-national companies (e.g. Ford, Cadburys. ICI and Esso) who construct factories, production plants, offices and distribution depots for their own use. National companies (e.g. Tesco, Sainsburys and Woolworths) who construct buildings for their own use in warehousing and retail. Local property development companies, who construct offices, factories, shops and houses speculatively for hire, lease or sale. Private clients, who construct new buildings, or extent, refurbish or repair the existing building for own occupation, letting, leasing or sale. B. Consultant office (The Design Team) All the developing design stage it is imperative that architectural design and details are well integrated with those of structural, mechanical and electrical engineers. The architect as the design team leader is responsible for design integration. And all the design team members are playing the important role during the design stage. B1.The Architect Traditionally, the design function in the construction process is the responsibility of an architect who is a professionally qualified person whose role is to interpret the clients project requirements into a specific design or scheme. Design is taken to include appearance composition, proportion, structure, function and economy of product, but in addition the architect performs the function of obtaining planning permission for the scheme. In most times, too, the architect supervises and organizes the entire construction process, starting with consulting with the client and ending with commissioning. As an established practice, the architect plays the leading role in the construction process. He or she collects, coordinates, controls and disseminates project information to all project participants. As a project team leader, the architect performs various functions in all stages of construction process, which includes: Ascertaining, interpreting and formulating the clients requirement into an understandable project brief. Designing a building to meet the clients requirement and constraints imposed by such factors as statutory obligations, technical feasibility, environmental standards, site conditions and cost. Bringing together a team of construction professionals such as the quantity surveyor, structural engineer and service engineer to give expert guidance on specific points of the clients construction project. Assessing clients cost limit and timescale, and specifying the type and grade of materials/components for use on the construction project. Preparing production information for pricing and construction and inviting tenders from building contractors. Supervising the construction on sire, constantly keeping client informed of the projects progress and issuing production instructions as and when required. Keeping the client informed of the status of the projects cost and advising ion when payment should be made or withheld. Advising on the conduct of the project generally and resolving all contractual disputes between client and the building contractor. Issuing the certificate of completion, the certificate of making good defects and the final certificate for payment. Generally, the architect acts as an agent for all purposes relating to designing, obtaining tenders for and superintending the construction work for whish he or she has been commissioned. To be able to perform above function efficiently, the architect must process, among other things, the attributes of foresight, an understanding of construction materials, communicating and coordinating abilities, essential design skills and an ability to design within a set budget. B2. Engineers B2a. The Structural Engineer The structural engineer acts as an advisor to the architect on all structural problems such as stability of the structure, suitability of materials proposed, structural feasibility of the proposed design and sizes of structural members for a construction project. Normally, the structural design engineer submits his/her various structural calculations to the area local authority for approval at the same time as the architect submits his/her drawings for building regulations approval. In addition, the structural engineer performs structural design and supervises his or her specialist area of the construction project during production on site. B2b. The Services Engineers Like the structural engineer, the services engineers (plumbing, electrical, heating and ventilating, air conditioning, sanitation, lifts and escalators and so on) contribute to the building design process to ensure that thermal and visual comfort are achieved effectively. For this reason, they analyze the clients requirement and priorities and advise the architect on the most appropriate design solution. They prepare diagrams of their proposals or services layout of the proposed construction project on the separate drawings and the architect includes these in the tender drawings sent out to contractors for competitive bidding. Once the services engineers have made their contributions to the design, they ensure that their contributions have been correctly interpreted, installed and commissioned. Where services engineers design layout causes any structural problems, the advice of the structural engineer is sought. There is also a need for the architect to coordinate the route of pipes, cables and ducts for various services on the project. The duties and responsibilities of the structural and services engineer include the following: Providing specialist advice and assisting in the design of the construction project within the scope of their respective specialist field. Producing calculations or other relevant data to assist in the design, cost planning, and the assessment of suitability of materials/components and the like. Supervising their respective specialist fields of the project and modifying or redesigning work whenever required. B3. The Quantity Surveyor The quantity surveyor is responsible for the study of the economies and financial implications of a construction project and, hence, he or she would be the appropriate construction professional to advise client/architect on matters relating to the economies and cost of a proposed construction project. Traditionally, quantity surveyors organize themselves into small practices; however, many are now to be found in contracting and client organizations. Those in private practice are mostly chosen and appointed by clients on the recommendation of an architect. As cost is one of the deciding factors in most construction projects, the quantity surveyor is brought in at the earliest opportunity to advise the client or architect on the cost of various schemes proposed. The quantity surveyor is also able to perform several functions on construction projects, and these may be summarized as follows: Preparation of preliminary cost advice and approximate estimating. Preparation of cost plan and carrying out cost studies (investment appraisal, life cycle costing and the like). Preparation of contract documentation for contractor selection and construction project administration. Evaluation of contractors tenders received with documentations for acceptance or rejection. Preparation of cash flow forecasts and institution of post-contract cost monitoring/reporting mechanisms. Valuation of variations that arise as the works proceed and preparation of interim valuations at regular intervals. Preparation of periodic cost report for the architect or client. Preparation and agreement of final account with the contractor. Evaluation and settlement of contractors claim for direct loss and/or expenses. Settlement of contractual disputes. C. The contractor The production aspects of construction projects are undertaken by building contractors who are essentially commercial companies that contract to construct development projects. Although many major contracting establishments are able to undertake both design and production work, their primary function is to build and to organize their considerable resources basically as a manufacturing organization. Duties and responsibilities of the contractor commence upon invitation to tender and include the following: Carrying out a full site investigation prior to submission of tender to ensure that the bid includes all the cost of contractual risks and problems. Submitting priced bills of quantities for examination and/or correction of any errors when required by the architect. Planning and programming the works and reprogramming thereafter whenever unforeseen events frustrate the program. Controlling directly employed operatives, sub-contractors, suppliers, materials and plant for the execution of the project to programme and cost. Coordinating efforts of all operatives and ensuring that the completed works comply with the contract specification and are also to the satisfaction of the architect. Notifying the architect of information requirements, delays to the construction programme, discrepancy between contract documents, direct loss and/or expense sustained and so on. Paying the wages of directly employed operatives, sub-contractors and suppliers in time to avoid conflicts over payment. Supplying all the information required by the clients professional advisers for the proper administration of the works. Taking steps to carry out the contractors obligations to rectify all defects on completion of the works. Providing post-occupancy repair and maintenance service if so required by the client.

Non Hodgkins Lymphoma: Types, Causes and Symptoms

Non Hodgkins Lymphoma: Types, Causes and Symptoms Lymphoma is a type of cancer that affects the lymphatic system. Lymphoma is divided into two types called Hodgkins lymphoma and non-Hodgkins lymphoma. Non-Hodgkins lymphomas (NHL) are a range of diseases emerging from clonal proliferation of lymphocytes which is a type of white blood cells resulting in cancer or tumour formation of lymphatic system.1 An estimated 8,000 new cases of NHL has been diagnosed annually in the United Kingdom at the end of the 20th century.2 NHL is a common hematologic malignancy and ranked eighth as the most common malignancy.2 Male has 1.5 times likelihood than female from being diagnosed with NHL. From the early seventies, cases of NHL have increased by threefold for both male and female throughout many countries beside United Kingdom.2 In 2007, non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) caused 4,533 deaths in United Kingdom. Males and females share almost similar number of deaths but males has higher age standardized mortality rate. However, not all patients die from NHL as infections may be one of the causes. Non-Hodgkin lymphoma has 53% overall 5-year relative survival in an analysis3 conducted over 22 European countries with age adjusted figures 48% in men and 54% in womean. In Scotland, the total number of diagnosed non-Hodgkins lymphoma cases from 1990-1994 were 1,598 for men and 1,708 in women. The percentage of age standardized survival rate for patients diagnosed after one year and five years with 95% confidence interval were 63.5 (61.1-66.1) and 41.0 (38.2-44.0) respectively.3 NHL has no established cause factor and people diagnosed with NHL have no known risk factors. However, NHL can be associated with chronic inflammatory diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, coeliac disease, and Sjà ¶gren syndrome.4 Study by Lens and Newton-Bishop show association between NHL and cutaneous melanoma.5 Besides that, the risk of developing NHL increases with chronic infection from viruses and bacteria such as Epstein-Barr virus, human T-lymphotropic virus 1(HTLV-1) and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).2 There was a strong link between Burkitt lymphoma and Epstein-Barr virus6 while adult T-cell lymphoma can be caused by HTLV-1.7 It has been noted that prevalence of NHL was higher in people with HIV infections compared to healthy adults.8 One study conducted by Stolte et al9 showed that there was association between Helicobacter pylori infection and mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) lymphomas. It has also been noted that primary effusion lymphomas can be associat ed with human herpes virus while ocular adenexal lymphomas can be associated with Chlamydia psittaci.10 Moreover, evidence has shown association between splenic or large cell lymphomas and hepatitis C infections.11 The risk of developing NHL increases when a person was immunocompromised such as undergoing organ transplant12 or patients with AIDS and autoimmune diseases. Certain chemotherapy drugs and radiotherapy may increase the risk of developing NHL within 10 to 15 years after treatment.4 Solvents, pesticides and other chemical factors have also been associated with causes of NHL.2 Diagnosis In this case, a male patient has been recently diagnosed with NHL but the type of NHL and pathology were unconfirmed. Lymphoma can be divided into two types: indolent and aggressive. Indolent lymphomas such as follicular, marginal zone and lymphoplasmacytic lymphoma13 are commonly accompanied by slow, progressing and painless peripheral lymphadenopathy. There might be history of patients with enlarged lymph nodes before regressing without diagnosis made. These spontaneous regressions of lymph nodes may occur, preventing biopsy diagnostic test from being done and patient was treated for an assumed infection. It is uncommon to see primary extranodal lymphoma or systemic symptoms occurring at early stages but can be encountered as disease progresses. Examples of systemic B-symptoms are fever, weight loss, and night sweats. Indolent lymphoma can undergo histologic transformation or changes to a different, more aggressive usually large-cell lymphoma type. Indolent lymphomas are usually sl ow growing and it may respond to treatment but relapse tend to occur frequently.14 Aggressive lymphomas such as diffuse large B-cell lymphoma are different from indolent with most patients presenting with lymphadenopathy or involvement of extranodal sites. Common extranodal sites affliated are gastrointestinal tract, skin, bone marrow, sinuses, thyroid, or central nervous system. It is usual to see presence of systemic B-symptoms in a third of patients with aggressive lymphomas. Aggressive lymphomas are fast growing and are treatable than indolent lymphomas.14 NHL has been hard to diagnose and recognizing people that has high risk of NHL is difficult. Patient can only be identified correctly after development of lymphadenopathy or other symptoms related to NHL. Even though with the advancement in imaging techniques, histology is mandatory to confirm diagnosis of NHL type before progressing to treatment. It is common to use surgical biopsy either by incisional or excisional with latter being recommended to provide biopsy specimens to be reviewed by hematopathologists. The morphologic appearance obtained with additional information from immunophenotype, genetics and clinical features were then used to classify NHL with definite clinical unit. These were the basis for World Health Organization (WHO) (Table 1) classification of neoplastic diseases arising from hematopoietic and lymphoid tissues. Fine-needle aspiration or large bore-needle biopsies can also be used to diagnose NHL but was discourage for initial diagnosis due to difficulty in co nfirming a specific diagnosis.15 Table 1. World Health Organization (WHO) Classification of non-Hodgkins lymphomas.15 B-cell neoplasms Precursor B-cell neoplasm Precursor B-lymphoblastic leukemia/lymphoma (precursor B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia) Mature (peripheral) B-cell neoplasms B-cell chronic lymphocytic leukemia/small lymphocytic lymphoma B-cell prolymphocytic leukemia Lymphoplasmacytic lymphoma Splenic marginal zone lymphoma Hairy cell leukemia Plasma cell myeloma/plasmacytoma Extranodal marginal zone B-cell lymphoma of MALT Nodal marginal zone lymphoma Follicular lymphoma Mantle cell lymphoma Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma Mediastinal large B-cell lymphoma Primary effusion lymphoma Burkitts lymphoma/Burkitt cell leukemia T-Cell and NK-Cell Neoplasms Precursor T-cell neoplasm Precursor T-lymphoblastic lymphoma/leukemia Mature (peripheral) T-cell neoplasms T-cell prolymphocytic leukemia T-cell granular lymphocytic leukemia Aggressive NK-cell leukemia Adult T-cell lymphoma/leukemia (HTLV-1) Extranodal NK/T-cell lymphoma, nasal type Enteropathy-type T-cell lymphoma Hepatosplenic T-cell lymphoma Subcutaneous panniculitis-like T-cell lymphoma Mycosis fungoides and Sà ©zary syndrome Anaplastic large-cell lymphoma, T/null cell, primary cutaneous type Peripheral T-cell lymphoma, unspecified Angioimmunoblastic T-cell lymphoma Anaplastic large-cell lymphoma, T/null cell, primary systemic type MALT, mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue; NK, natural killer. Source: Data from Zelenetz and Horwitz Lymphoma has been categorized into stages following modified Ann Arbor Staging System (Table 2) originally developed for Hodgkin disease. This system as shown in table 2 was based on area of involvement, presence or absence of extranodal involvement and B symptoms such as weight loss more than 10% of body weight, fever, and drenching night sweats.15 Histology and morphology of lymphoma largely determined the treatment outcome and prognosis. Due to different outcomes of patients with lymphoma and limitation of clinical staging, International Prognostic Index (IPI) (Table 3) was developed from 2,031 patients with 5 independent, easily obtained clinical features such as patient age, Ann Arbor stage, serum lactate dehydrogenase level, number of extranodal sites and performance status to predict survival. The IPI (Table 3) served as a guide for clinical management, clinical trial design and interpretation. However, this IPI was designed for aggressive lymphoma. Thus, the Follicular Lymphoma International Prognostic Index (FLIPI) (Table 4) was developed from 4,167 patients for indolent lymphoma with clinical features such as patients age, Ann Arbor stage, haemoglobin level, number of nodal areas and serum lactacte dehydrogenase level. Examples of nodal areas are cervical, para-aortic, inguinocrural, celiac and other ancillary nodal si tes. FLIPI can help determine significantly different mortality risk of patients with indolent lymphomas and improve decision on different aggressive therapy options that may benefit certain patient groups.15 Treatment Non-Hodgkins lymphoma can be treated by a range of treatments available such as radiation therapy / radiotherapy, surgery, stem cell transplant, single-agent or combination chemotherapy, immunotherapy or radioimmunconjugate therapy. Treatments can consist of one or a combination of the options available with different treatments having different duration and doses. In this case scenario, the patient was recently diagnosed with NHL. Due to the lack of information, NHL diagnosed can be assumed to be either indolent lymphoma or aggressive lymphoma. Being 28 year old, patient was eligible for more aggressive treatment compared to patients aged 60 and above.16 Indolent Lymphoma Indolent lymphomas such as follicular lymphoma and MALT lymphoma were not treated at early stages if there were no symptoms present with doctors adopting watch-and-wait approach. In a study conducted by Division of Oncology, Stanford University Medical Center, 43 patients with follicular lymphoma stage I or stage II were observed after deferment of radiation due to a variety of reasons. After a median of 86 months of follow-up, 63% had not been treated and survival was almost the same to the patients that has undergo radiation.17 In this situation, toxic side effects of treatments should be considered against the advantages of undergoing treatments. Patients with low grade, stage I-II NHL lymphoma with localized disease can be treated either with surgery18 or radiation therapy. Radiation therapy as shown in a study conducted by Stanford University can be used to treat limited stage, low grade lymphomas of 177 patients with good remission rate.19 Another study conducted on 103 patient s with stage I and II MALT lymphoma showed 77% disease-free survival rate with radiotherapy.20 Surgery can be done in situations where low grade MALT lymphoma is localized and there is a risk of perforation but if the lymphoma progresses to a more advance stage, then surgery no longer present as first line treatment.21 As lymphoma mainly affects systemic system, surgery is normally used to establish diagnosis. Besides that, stem cell transplant can be used to treat NHL but was limited to younger patients and difficulty in determination of the time to treat patients. A study on autologous stem cell transplant after high dose therapy showed higher response rate compared to immunochemotherapy.22 Chemotherapy options for indolent lymphomas ranged from single-agents such as cyclophosphamide, chlorambucil or doxorubicin to combinations such as cyclophosphamide, vincristine and prednisone (CVP)23 chemotherapy. More aggressive combination of chemotherapy that combines cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine, and prednisone (CHOP) can also be use. In a study conducted in 228 stage III or IV follicular lymphoma patients that were treated randomly either with cyclophosphamide, a less toxic single agent or combination of cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine, prednisone and bleomycin (CHOP-B) showed no initial advantage to combination treatment eventhough in an unplanned subgroup analysis showed improved disease control and survival.24 Cyclophosphamide is a nitrogen mustard alkylating agent that acts by causing DNA damage and interfere with cell replication. Besides fatigue, nausea, vomiting, bone marrow suppression and alopecia that were normally associated with anticancer treatment, prolonged use of cyclophosphamide might result in severely affected gametogenesis.25 Chlorambucil has similar mechanism of action to cyclophosphamide with lesser side effects but development of widespread rashes may occur.25 Doxorubicin is a cytotoxic, anthracyclines antibiotic that acts by intercalating DNA. Common side effects are present with additional potential cardiomyopathy and severe tissue necrosis due to extravasation when administering doxorubicin. Vincristine is a vinca alkaloids and act by depolymerising microtubules and thus inhibiting mitosis. It may not have significant myelosuppression along with other common side effects but may cause neurotoxicity and severe tissue necrosis due to extravasation.25 Prednisone is a pr odrug that is converted in liver to prednisolone that has a marked antitumour effect in NHL. However, it may cause immunosuppression, adrenal suppression, mood and behaviour changes, gastro-intestinal effects with mineralocorticoid and glucocorticoid side effects. Bleomycin is a cytotoxic antibiotic that is metabolized to produce superoxide and hydroxyl free radicals which results in DNA damage. However it can cause skin pigmentation and dose related pulmonary fibrosis.26 In addition to chemotherapy, immunotherapy is becoming a standard treatment for indolent lymphoma. Rituximab is a recombinant chimeric monoclonal antibody that targets protein CD20 which is primarily found on the surface of malignant and normal human B cells involved with B-cell proliferation and differentiation. It is said to induce apoptosis of CD20 cells.25,26 Rituximab was generally well tolerated when used compared to other conventional chemotherapy with distinct reduction of haemotological events like severe neutropenia and associated infections.27 Studies28,29,30 conducted on the usage of rituximab for recently diagnosed follicular NHL as single first line therapy showed good response rates around 52% to 73% and a 12-month progression free survival. Rituximab can be combined with chemotherapy such as CHOP as CHOP-R to treat indolent B-cell lymphoma. The trial of CHOP vs CHOP-R31 conducted in 1999 showed 95% overall response rate for CHOP-R with 55% achieving complete remission and 40% in partial remission. Addition of cytokines such as interferon ÃŽÂ ±32, interleukin 233, and interleukin 1234 to rituximab therapy conducted in studies shown that good efficacy profile can be obtained but further studies need to be conducted to confirm. Interferon ÃŽÂ ± has antitumour therapeutic effect but is not side effect free with additional myelosuppression, ocular side effects, cardiovascular problems, hypersensitivity on top of common anticancer side effects. Interferon-ÃŽÂ ± can be incorporated into chemotherapy as a new approach in treating NHL. Incorporation of interferon-ÃŽÂ ± into anthracycline-containing has been demonstrated to increase the remission rate and remission duration. However the data has not been conclusive and further information must be obtained before making it as standard treatment. German Low Grade Lymphoma Study Group has been conducting trial with continuous higher dose interferon maintenance therapy yield 45% relapse-free patie nts.35 Besides rituximab, Food Drug Administration in United States has approved two anti-CD20 radioimmunotherapy agents: iodine I 131 tositumomab36 and yttrium Y 90 ibritumomab tiuxetan37 for treatment of lymphoma. Both agents contain murine antibodies that target CD20 with ÃŽÂ ²-emitting radioisotopes but iodine I 131 tositumomab can also emit gamma radiation. Both still cause side effects although milder with significant one being myelosuppression. University of Michigan conducted a phase II trial where 76 patients were given treatment of iodine I 131 tositumomab as initial treatment for follicular lymphoma and resulted in 75% of complete response and 95% of overall response.38 Yttrium Y 90 ibritumomab tiuxetan has been shown to be effective when used in consolidation therapy after rituximab39 or in relapsed/refractory B-cell NHL.40 Radioimmunotherapy was deemed better than radiotherapy due to prevention of normal tissues from being exposed to radiation and systemic radiation can be a chieved to known and unknown tumour cells. There is another emerging strategy to counter low-grade NHL by administering vaccine to boost patients immune system which leads to tumour rejection by patients body. Trials conducted showed promising results among relapsed patients following chemotherapy with prolonged disease free progression and overall survival. This strategy has not been approved by FDA but personalized vaccine therapy has been received positively in its effectiveness as first line in countering slow progressing NHL. Vaccine therapy was deemed too slow for aggressive NHL but trials were ongoing to determine its efficacy.41 The management of indolent NHL have to depend on considerations such as symptoms, age, comorbidities, extent of disease, prior therapy and others. Most decisions on management of indolent NHL depend on physicians trying to optimize the treatment options to treat this chronic illness.15 Aggressive Lymphoma Aggressive NHL consist mainly of diffuse large B cells demands almost similar treatments to indolent lymphoma. As explained above, radiotherapy is one of the options available. The early treatment for early stage aggressive NHL was radiotherapy alone with relative cure rates of 50% for stage I and decreases to 20% for stage II. Therefore, combination of radiotherapy and a chemotherapy regimen were used to improve the chances of survival for aggressive NHL patients. A study conducted among 400 patients with localized immediate or high grade NHL compared the results of one group receiving 8 cycles of CHOP alone and another receiving 3 cycles of CHOP and radiotherapy. The study showed patients under combined CHOP and radiotherapy has statistically significant overall survival rate than patients receiving CHOP alone. Life-threatening side effects that were encountered by both groups were statistically significant in comparison with fewer patients under combined CHOP and radiotherapy suff ering from adverse effects. Therefore, combination of CHOP and radiotherapy are better for treatment of localized NHL compared to CHOP alone.42 There was another alternative treatment available for patients with aggressive NHL called high-dose therapy with autologous stem cell transplant (HDT ASCT). A number of trials among intermediate and high risk patients have been conducted to determine its efficacy following initial chemotherapy but there were conflicting results resulting in this treatment for not being first-line.43 Combination therapy has been known to be better than single therapy and used to increase the percentage of patients entering complete remission. In 1976 and 1980, CHOP regimen44 as explained above and COMLA regimen45 which includes cyclophosphamide, vincristine, methotrexate with leucovorin rescue, and cytarabine were published respectively. Both regimens have been shown to present a possible cure rate of approximately 30% for patients with aggressive lymphoma achieving long-term remission. In the ensuing years, new second and third generation of aggressive NHL regimens showed 55% to 65% patients being cured. An example of second regimen treatment was m-BACOD consisting of methotrexate, bleomycin, doxorubicin, cyclophosphasmide, vincristine, and dexamethasone.46 Third generation regimens were such as MACOP-B made up of methotrexate, doxorubicin, cyclophosphamide, vincristine, prednisone and bleomycin47 and ProMACE-CytaBOM compromising prednisone, methotrexate, cyclophosphamide, etopo side, cytarabine, bleomycin, vincristine and methotrexate.48 The effectiveness of all these regimens were not known as many of these studies were conducted with relatively small number of patients until 1993, a trial called national high priority intergroup Phase III was held to do a comparison between CHOP, MACOP-B, ProMACE-CytaBOM and m-BACOD regarding effectiveness and side effects.49 The four regimens demonstrate equivalent outcomes but CHOP showed the lowest side effects. Based on this trial, CHOP regimen became the standard treatment for NHL in the United States. Another regimen called ACVBP consisting of doxorubicin, cyclophosphamide, vindesine, bleomycin, and prednisone has been developed by Groupe dEtude des Lymphomes de LAdulte (GELA) in Europe which were compared in poor risk patients against CHOP and results favour ACVBP.50 In another trial, etoposide and CHOP termed CHOEP was shown to increase complete remission rate and survival rate in 18 to 60 year-old patient in a t rial that compared 3 week CHOP-21, 2 week CHOP-14 with CHOEP-21, CHOEP-14. CHOEP was recommended in the conclusion of this trial if the patient is young with good prognostic feature of aggressive lymphoma.51 Etoposide is a synthetic analogue to vinca alkaloids and binds to DNA and topoisomerase II complex in phase G2 to prevent DNA replication and causes strand to break.26 Etoposide is still associated with toxic effects such as alopecia, myelosuppression, nausea and vomiting.25 Immunotherapy also played a part in treatment of aggressive lymphoma with rituximab as a single agent. GELA has shown that the overall response of rituximab as a single agent was 37% with patients suffering from relapsed and refractory diffuse large B-cell lymphoma.52 A randomized controlled trial has been conducted by Mab Thera International Trial (MInT) Group to investigate CHOP-like chemotherapy against CHOP-like chemotherapy with rituximab. The result showed that rituximab combined with cheomotherapy increased overall survival and with no significant increase in side effects.53 Rituximab and CHOP regimen is the most common chemotherapy regimen for diffuse large B-cell NHL. British Columbia Cancer Agency (BCCA) implemented a new policy on 1 March 2001 recommending all patients newly diagnosed with advanced stage diffuse large B-cell lymphoma to be treated with CHOP and rituximab based on evidences from trials conducted by GELA and MInT Group.54 Treatment recommendation. As stated earlier, limited information was available for this case scenario. Patient is only known as 28 year old male recently diagnosed with NHL. An appropriate treatment that could be given as first line is CHOP regimen with addition of rituximab (CHOP-R) based on evidences given above. CHOP-R has significant better results compared to CHOP alone and addition of rituximab does not increase side effects. CHOP-R can also be used for both indolent and aggressive lymphoma with positive outcomes as stated above although symptomless indolent lymphoma may require watch-and wait strategy. However in terms of cost-effectiveness, CHOP-R is more expensive than CHOP alone but CHOP-R is preferred due to its increased efficacy profile and similar side effects. In conclusion, CHOP-R can be given every 14 or 21 days with the course of treatment ranging from 3 to 8 cycles. CHOP-R cycle started with the first day drug administration consisting of rituximab, cyclophosphamide, vincristine and doxorub icin through injection into a vein or through drip and prednisone was taken orally from day 1 to day 5. Conflict: Newton Vs Leibniz Conflict: Newton Vs Leibniz Mathematicians everywhere contributed to the development of Calculus. However, the two most known founders of calculus are Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. Nowadays, the credit is handed over to both men. Nevertheless, a controversy took place over which of them deserved the recognition. The controversy was both intense and widespread. Isaac Newton: Isaac Newton is known as one of the greatest scientists who have ever lived; in addition, he is recognized as one of the most accomplished mathematicians that England has ever seen. Newton became fascinated in mathematics at an early age. Later in life, he created Calculus. However, he did not publish it until later. This was an enormous mistake. His life: In 1643, Newton was born. Later, in 1655, Newton began the discovery of calculus with the general binomial series which led to him discovering integration, differentiation, and infinite processes. Thirty two years later, 1687, Newton published his work in a book called The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. At the age of eighty four, in 1727, Newton died. Gottfried Leibniz: Gottfried Leibniz is known as a worldwide scientist. He became a leading international philosopher as well as, a worldwide known comprehensive thinker. He studied forces and weight. He wrote about economics, theology, biology, geology, law, politics, metaphysics, and mathematics. He claims that he invented Calculus independently from Newton, but is it true? His life: In 1646, Leibniz was born in Germany. When Leibniz was 27 years old, in 1673, he moved to England. In 1675, Leibniz began using the integral symbol, which no one ever used before. In 1676, Leibniz developed the Leibniz Calculus. 8 years later, 1684, Leibniz published a superior system of calculus about notation which was easier to use. At the age of 70, 1716, Leibniz died in his home country, Germany. What is Calculus? Calculus is the branch of mathematics that deals with limits, functions, derivatives, integrals, and infinite series. Calculus has two branches: Differential Calculus: Differential calculus is the study of the derivative of a function. It is the study of how a function changes when its input changes. Differentiation is the process of finding the derivative. The derivative at any point equals to the slope of the tangent line of the functions graph. Basically, the derivative of a function determines the best linear approximation. Integral Calculus: Integral Calculus is the study of the properties, definitions, and applications of both, the indefinite integral and the definite integral. Integration is the method of finding the value of an integral. Integral Calculus is related to two linear operations. Indefinite Integral: The anti-derivative, inverse of derivative Definite integral: When you input a function in the definite integral, it outputs a number. This gives you the area between the graph and the x-axis. The Calculus Controversy: The conflict was an argument between Isaac Newton and Gottfried Leibniz over who first invented calculus. Newton claims that he began working on a form of calculus in 1666, but he did not publish. Gottfried Leibniz began to work on his calculus in 1674, and he published his work in a paper in 1684. Newton created his clumsy method of fluxions, in 1655. However, he feared condemnation. Therefore, he did not publish his work until 1704. The fact that he fought with Leibniz before publishing anything raises the question: Was it Newton who invented Calculus? Leibniz developed his calculus in 1673; he used many symbols that we still use today- derivatives as dy/dx and many more. Leibniz published his work in 1684, 20 years before Newton. The last years of Leibnizs life were poisoned by a controversy with Newton over whether he discovered calculus separately, or whether he had invented another form of ideas that were Newtons. Newton influenced the quarrel. In 1673, Leibniz travelled to England. He met some of the leading scientists, like Robert Hookes and showed them his unfinished calculating machine. He did not meet Newton, but he was shown Newtons unpublished work. After Leibniz came back from England his two miraculous yeasr began. After these two years he was considered a creative genius. One of his inventions was calculus. Leibniz needed to contact a broader scientific community, so he became in contact with Christian Huygens, a Danish scientist, and Collins and Henry Oldenburg, secretary of the Royal Society. Leibniz sent his ideas to Collin. In return, Collin sent Leibniz the latest ideas circulating the Royal Society. In Leibnizs defense, however, some documents sent did not reach Leibniz until after he developed his own way. It was clear that he had developed his own ideas on differentiation and integration. Both Newton and Leibniz had partners who helped them develop calculus. Johann Bernoulli, who used Leibniz calculus to maximize function, motivated Leibniz to fight with Newton. Newton was surrounded by people who Leibniz called enfants perdus, the lost children. Newton led the attack, and they continued to carry the battle. Leibniz was accused of plagiarism, a charge that doesnt carry on when you look at the evidence: 1. He published his method years before Newton published anything on Fluxions. 2. He always referred to his discovery as his own invention. 3. The way he developed his ideas of calculus were different than the way Newton developed his ideas. 4. Leibniz came up with ideas of differential and integral calculus before and of Newtons work was published. In June 1676, Newton wrote to Oldenburg, describing the binomial theory. He also stated that all curves can be reduced to infinite series. Moreover, he stated that areas, lengths of curves, and volumes can be obtained through series. Afterwards, Leibniz sent Newton a letter to clarify series. Newton replied by talking about finding the maxima and minima, differentials, and many other topics. However, he did not mention anything about fluxions. Later, Leibniz published his calculus in 1684. When Newton published his work, Newton found out that Leibnizs calculus was very similar to his. Newton also came to know later on that Leibniz has learnt ideas from Collins and Oldenburg; these ideas came from Newton and Gregory. In 1672, Leibniz learnt mathematics and got letters from Collins. What was unusual was that Newton sent Collins similar letters at the same time describing fluxions. Newton then accused Leibniz of copying his work. However, the case leaned towards Leibniz. In defense to the accusation, Leibniz said that when he was shown the works of Newton, but he did not learn anything useful because he did not know much mathematics at the time. Leibniz also said that Collins notes were irrelevant to the subject of calculus. Leibniz died dishonored; on the other hand, Newton was given a state funeral. However, History does authenticate Leibniz. As time goes on, the strength of the controversy decreases. And, Leibniz slowly finds his place as one of the best scientists of all time. All in all, Newton was known to be the first inventor of calculus because there is proof that he developed his theory of fluxions first. He also created differentials, and they were later explained by Leibniz. On the other hand, Leibniz also created calculus independently from Newton. Leibniz described his calculus in a different way than Newton. I personally think that Newton made a mistake by not publishing his work as soon as he created it. This is what led to the controversy. I also think that both men deserve the title of calculus inventors just as equally.

Heidegger On Traditional Language And Technological Language :: Heidegger Language Languages Essays

Heidegger On Traditional Language And Technological Language ABSTRACT: On July 18, 1962, Martin Heidegger delivered a lecture entitled Traditional Language and Technological Language in which he argues that the opposition between these two languages concerns our very essence. I examine the nature of this opposition by developing his argument within his particular context and in the general light of his reflections on language. In different sections on technology and language, I summarize much of what he had said in previous writings on the topic (viz., "Die Frage nach der Technik" and "Der Weg zur Sprache"), including his preliminary comments contrasting instruction with teaching, and characterizing this reflection in terms of its uselessness. The central issue connecting these seemingly varying themes is the status of education in our modern technological age and, more specifically, of instruction in the mother tongue. Heidegger’s concern for the status of instruction in the mother tongue is, as we will see later, directly connected to his distinction between the two forms of language. On July 18, 1962, Martin Heidegger delivered a lecture entitled ÃÅ"berlieferte Sprache und Technische Sprache (1) (Traditional Language and Technological Language) in which he argues that the opposition between these languages concerns our very essence. In this paper I examine the nature of this opposition by developing his argument in this particular context and in the general light of his reflections on language. Addressed to science teachers in a vocational school, Heidegger's lecture offers some relatively uncomplicated formulations of theses he had already developed mainly in "Die Frage nach der Technik" (2) and "Der Weg zur Sprache." (3) There are two main sections, one on technology, the other on language, which summarize much of what he had said in those previous writings. There is, however, a preliminary comment in which he contrasts instruction with teaching, and an introductory section in which he characterizes his reflection in terms of its uselessness. The issue connecting these seemingly varying themes here is the status of education in our modern technological age and, more specifically, of instruction in the mother tongue. Heidegger's concern for the status of instruction in the mother tongue is, as we will later see, directly connected to his distinction between the two forms of language. Speaking thus to his particular audience, Heidegger claims he is not instructing but teaching them in the sense of letting-learn, where learning comprises bringing our life into the correspondence with what grants itself to us in its essence.

Presidents And Affirmative Action :: essays research papers

Presidents and Affirmative Action In 1965, President Lyndon B. Johnson issued Executive Order #11246 at Howard University that required federal contractors to undertake affirmative action to increase the number of minorities that they employ. He wanted to ensure that minorities were recruited to have real opportunities to be hired and then eventually get a promotion. In 1969, the Department of Labor exposed widespread racial discrimination of the Construction Department so President Richard M. Nixon decided to encorporate a system of "goals and timetables" to evaluate federal construction companies according to affirmative action. This idea of "goals and timetables" provided guidelines for companies to follow and comply with affirmative action regulations. During the presidency of Gerald R. Ford, he extended affirmative action to people with disabilities (3) and Vietnam veterns (4) but there were no goals or timetables for these two groups. This type of affirmative action required recruitment efforts, accessability, accommodation and reviews of physical and mental job qualifications. President Jimmy Carter consolidated all federal agencies that were required by law to follow the affirmative action play into the Department of Labor. Before Carter did this, each agency handled affirmative action in its own individual way, some were not as consistant as other agencies were. He created the Office of Federal Contract Compliance Program (OFCCP) in 1978 to ensure compliance with the affirmative action policies. Affirmative action began to go downhill when Ronald Reagan and later George Bush came into office. Affirmative action lost some gains it had made and was mor or less ignored by the Republicans in the White House and in Congress. Affirmative action was silently being "killed" by our federal administrators. But among this destruction there was one positive aspect, the passage of Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (5). Finally to the Presidency of Bill Clinton. The Republicans are attempting to scare people into changing their party lines by misusing affirmative action. They are saying that affirmative action is nothing more than a quota (6) or reverse discrimination (7).

Bandura’s Experiments

In the early 1960s Bandura and other researchers conducted a classic set of experiments that demonstrated the power of observational learning. In one experiment, a preschool child worked on a drawing while a television set showed an adult behaving aggressively toward a large inflated Bobo doll (a clown doll that bounces back up when knocked down). The adult pummeled the doll with a mallet, kicked it, flung it in the air, sat on it, and beat it in the face, while yelling such remarks as â€Å"Sock him in the nose †¦ Kick him †¦ Pow! † The child was then left in another room filled with interesting toys, including a Bobo doll.The experimenters observed the child through one-way glass. Compared with children who witnessed a nonviolent adult model and those not exposed to any model, children who witnessed the aggressive display were much more likely to show aggressive behaviors toward the Bobo doll, and they often imitated the model's exact behaviors and hostile words. I n a variant of the original experiment, Bandura and colleagues examined the effect of observed consequences on learning. They showed four-year-old children one of three films of an adult acting violently toward a Bobo doll.In one version of the film, the adult was praised for his or her aggressive behavior and given soda and candies. In another version, the adult was scolded, spanked, and warned not to behave that way again. In a third version, the adult was neither rewarded nor punished. After viewing the film, each child was left alone in a room that contained a Bobo doll and other toys. Many children imitated the adult’s violent behaviors, but children who saw the adult punished imitated the behaviors less often than children who saw the other films.However, when the researchers promised the children a reward if they could copy the adult’s behavior, all three groups of children showed large and equal amounts of violent behavior toward the Bobo doll. Bandura conclude d that even those children who did not see the adult model receive a reward had learned through observation, but these children (especially those who saw the model being punished) would not display what they had learned until they expected a reward for doing so.The term latent learning describes cases in which an individual learns a new behavior but does not perform this behavior until there is the possibility of obtaining a reward. B Bandura’s Theory of Imitation According to Bandura’s influential theory of imitation, also called social learning theory, four factors are necessary for a person to learn through observation and then imitate a behavior: attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation. First, the learner must pay attention to the crucial details of the model’s behavior.A young girl watching her father bake a cake will not be able to imitate this behavior successfully unless she pays attention to many important details—ingredients, quantiti es, oven temperature, baking time, and so on. The second factor is retention—the learner must be able to retain all of this information in memory until it is time to use it. If the person forgets important details, he or she will not be able to successfully imitate the behavior. Third, the learner must have the physical skills and coordination needed for reproduction of the behavior.The young girl must have enough strength and dexterity to mix the ingredients, pour the batter, and so on, in order to bake a cake on her own. Finally, the learner must have the motivation to imitate the model. That is, learners are more likely to imitate a behavior if they expect it to lead to some type of reward or reinforcement. If learners expect that imitating the behavior will not lead to reward or might lead to punishment, they are less likely to imitate the behavior.C Theory of Generalized Imitation An alternative to Bandura’s theory is the theory of generalized imitation. This theo ry states that people will imitate the behaviors of others if the situation is similar to cases in which their imitation was reinforced in the past. For example, when a young child imitates the behavior of a parent or an older sibling, this imitation is often reinforced with smiles, praise, or other forms of approval.Similarly, when children imitate the behaviors of friends, sports stars, or celebrities, this imitation may be reinforced—by the approval of their peers, if not their parents. Through the process of generalization, the child will start to imitate these models in other situations. Whereas Bandura’s theory emphasizes the imitator’s thought processes and motivation, the theory of generalized imitation relies on two basic principles of operant conditioning—reinforcement and generalization. D Factors Affecting Imitation Many factors determine whether or not a person will imitate a model.As already shown, children are more likely to imitate a model when the model’s behavior has been reinforced than when it has been punished. More important, however, are the expected consequences to the learner. A person will imitate a punished behavior if he or she thinks that imitation will produce some type of reinforcement. The characteristics of the model also influence the likelihood of imitation. Studies have shown that children are more likely to imitate adults who are pleasant and attentive to them than those who are not.In addition, children more often imitate adults who have substantial influence over their lives, such as parents and teachers, and those who seem admired and successful, such as celebrities and athletes. Both children and adults are more likely to imitate models who are similar to them in sex, age, and background. For this reason, when behavior therapists use modeling to teach new behaviors or skills, they try to use models who are similar to the learners. Microsoft ® Encarta ® Reference Library 2003.  © 1993-2002 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Engage in personal development in health

Engage in personal development in health, social care or children's and young people's settings (SSH 32) Outcome 1 1 _ Wealth my role as a support worker It Is my duty to support an Individual to complete everyday tasks. This can be activities such as food shopping. House chores, preparing food and drinks, making and attending appointments, attending college or day centre facilities, or participating in clubs for people with special needs.I have a responsibility to ensure the activity is achievable for the client and that I am roving the right support to achieve this. 2. As a support worker I have a duty to adhere to the codes of practice set out by my employers and also to ensure I adhere to the regulations set out by law. National occupational standards (NOSE) ensure I give the appropriate support and care to an individual. Outcome 2 1 . Reflective practice means thinking about and evaluating what I do and discussing any changes which could be made.Thinking about how I could have d one something differently, what I did well and what I could have done better. It also means reflecting our own values, beliefs and experiences which shape our thoughts and ideas. By continuously evaluating my performance I am able to ensure I am providing the expected level of service set out within the company's guidelines. 3. Everyone has different values, beliefs and experiences. We are more likely to be friendly and welcoming to people that share the same values and beliefs as us and less friendly to those that do not.However within my role it is expected that I provide he same level of care to every individual. Identifying your own beliefs and values will enable you to be aware of your reactions to others and enable them not to impact on the way you work. This is an important part of personal and professional development. Outcome 3 1 . Codes of practice are put in place to enable you to understand your role and your responsibilities. Care plans are in place for each individual and the support I am required to provide is person-centered.I have a duty to ensure I am aware of each individual's needs and to highlight any area I believe needs refocusing. Training ensure I adhere to regulations set out by law and the policies and procedures in place adhere to the current NOSE guidelines. Outcome 4 1 . Planning and reviewing my development usually takes place during planned supervision with my manager and my yearly appraisal. However I can approach either of my team leaders if I believe I require further training that is relevant to my role, they will speak with management on my behalf.Outside sources of support such as care managers, learning disabilities team or ICQ may also highlight areas they feel further training is required if it is relevant to an individual I am to provide support too. Outcome 5 1 . Attending training courses has enabled me to provide a level of care that is specific to the needs of the individual I am providing support too. During team meetings we may discuss service users and their needs. If a colleague has found something that works for them they will highlight it and it may be something I can use when working with that individual.